Acta Biomater. doi: 10.1073/pnas.74.11.5088, Woese, C. R., Kandler, O., and Wheelis, M. L. (1990). The metabolic engineering of molecules from microorganisms has been stimulated mainly by the need for new functional biomaterials in emerging drugs (nanostructured or not) (Vzquez and Villaverde, 2013). (2013). Metagenomics and metatranscriptomics allow researchers to study genes and gene expression from a collection of multiple species, many of which may not be easily cultured or cultured at all in the laboratory. Stable introduction of a Life-Shortening Wolbachia Infection into the Mosquito Aedes aegypti. J. Biol. These are just a few of the numerous applications of microbial genetics that we will explore in this chapter. Holloway, B. W. (1969). 35, 2004. doi: 10.1590/S1517-83822004000200013, Frenck, R. W., and Yeh, S. (2012). Nematol. As an example, the thermal cycler in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) is used to perform a diagnostic technique called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which relies on DNA polymerase enzymes from thermophilic bacteria. Int. Alternatively, scientists can attach known genes (called reporter genes) that encode easily observable characteristics to genes of interest, and the location of expression of such genes of interest can be easily monitored. Sens. Adv. Prop. J. Med. Lett. RNA interference of specific genes results from the base pairing of short, single-stranded antisense RNA molecules to regions within complementary mRNA molecules, preventing protein synthesis. doi: 10.1038/381480a0, McGovern, P. E., Zhang, J., Tang, J., Zhang, Z., Hall, G. R., Moreau, R. A., et al. doi: 10.1081/AL-200065793, Reed, S. G., Bertholet, S., Coler, R. N., and Friede, M. (2009). These data have also allowed the discovery of new or modified molecules used to obtain improved products, new products, or services. Sustainable agriculture, however, provides not only the control of phytopathogens but also the use of functional microbial characteristics related to the promotion of plant growth. 14, 288304. (2002). FDA Drug Bull. Brown, J., and Lauderdale, C. (2006). When genomics and transcriptomics are applied to entire microbial communities, we use the terms metagenomics and metatranscriptomics, respectively. J. Kary Mullis and others contributors found that this enzyme could be used in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify DNA fragments (Chien et al., 1976; Saiki et al., 1988). Microbiol. 1. J. Biotechnol. Because they require original research and development, and because they propose alternative methods of administration such as dermatological applications and inhaled formulations in order to minimize biological instability, biobetters still have significantly higher costs compared to reference biopharmaceutical versions (Mitragotri et al., 2014; Sandeep et al., 2016). This bacterium can accumulate approximately 80% of its dry mass in polymer and uses different types of substrates, such as glucose, fructose, and crude glycerin (Figueiredo et al., 2014). Biopharmaceuticals from microorganisms: from production to purification. Acta 568, 200210. It is almost as old as the civilization itself, although it wasn't called "biotechnology" until the 20th century. Gene therapy 5. 64, 679699. doi: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.03.011, Saiki, R. K., Gelfand, D. H., Stoffel, S., Scharf, S. J., Higuchi, R., Horn, G. T., et al. Process Biochem. Sokhandani, Z., Moosavi, M. R., and Basirnia, T. (2016). Researchers are currently developing techniques to mimic the natural process of RNA interference as a way to treat viral infections in eukaryotic cells. An important family of biomaterials includes the bioplastics. Apart from the plants and animals, enzymes are also obtained from certain microbes and are referred to as the microbial enzymes. US 2008/0138469. The participation of the microorganisms in this case is indirect. Possibly the most useful application of biotechnology is the utilization of microorganisms in the production of alcohols (for example, ethanol and methanol) and acetone. Ecology 97, 28152823. doi: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2006.07.004, Paterson, R. R. M. (2008). C. R. Biol. 225, 18. Cytotoxic and antibiotic cyclic pentapeptide from an endophytic Aspergillus tamarii of Ficus carica. Enzyme Microb. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2017.02.007, Wang, Z., Zhuge, J., Fang, H., and Prior, B. Waste treatment based on enzymatic processes tends to be less expensive; however, the enzymes are biodegradable, and further studies and prospection of microbial enzymes that are thermostable or resilient to large pH variations are needed. (2016). We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. Bioplastics also have the potential to lead to the rise, within civil construction, of materials that have low incorporated energy, contributing to energy efficiency (Ivanov and Stabnikov, 2016). Trichoderma: the genomics of opportunistic success. This occurred with the glycerol demand for the manufacture of explosives during World War I (Wang et al., 2001) and the large-scale production of penicillin, discovered by Fleming, in the 1940s (Neushul, 1993). In addition, the progress achieved by the genetic improvement of this virus has increased its effectiveness as an insecticide (Popham et al., 2016). Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchez, C., and Monod, J. Environ. Rep. 6, 37155. doi: 10.1038/srep37155, Awadhiya, A., Tyeb, S., Rathore, K., and Verma, V. (2016). (2016). doi: 10.1016/S0079-6603(08)60204-4, Astronomo, R. D., and Burton, D. R. (2010). Mmoire sur la fermentation alcoolique. (2013). Microbial products can be broadly categorized into: (1) metabolic production; (2) biotransformation; (3) production of biofuels; (4) treatment of organic and industrial wastes; (5) recovery of metals; (6) production of microbial biomass (microbial protein or single cell protein) for food and feed; (7) production of biocontrol agents; and (8) Selection of -lyase-producing yeasts improves aromatic thiol release and, consequently, the sensory properties of wines (Belda et al., 2016), whereas the selection of yeasts specializing in certain processes such as flocculation may improve the fermentation of special wines such as sparkling wines (Tofalo et al., 2016). The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. There's a new discipline in town: genomics, a new field of science that analyzes and compares the complete genome (genetic material of an organism) of organisms or a large number of genes in a simultaneous fashion. (2015). A large variety of microorganisms, including heterotrophic or autotrophic aerobic bacteria, actinomycetes, fecal coliforms, and thermophiles, as well as yeasts and other fungi, have been reported in solid waste composting processes (Beffa et al., 1996; Tiquia et al., 2002). Other approved therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, in Safety of Biologics Therapy (New York City, NY: Springer International Publishing), 141215. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2005.11.065, Lesage-Meessen, L., Lomascolo, A., Bonnin, E., Thibault, J.-F., Buleon, A., Roller, M., et al. Microbial techniques (selection, isolation ofpureculture,muta-tion,protoplast fusion, etc. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004973, Sharma, R., Chisti, Y., and Banerjee, U. C. (2001). These chemicals have. doi: 10.1007/s00289-008-0987-6, Belda, I., Ruiz, J., Navascus, E., Marquina, D., and Santos, A. Mycol. Cucumerinum. Cell Host Microbe 8, 334343. Med. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.04.053, Khl, L., Lukasiewicz, C. E., and van der Heijden, M. G. A. Polygenic analysis and targeted improvement of the complex trait of high acetic acid tolerance in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. doi: 10.5433/1679-0375.2011v32n2p213, Mitragotri, S., Burke, P. A., and Langer, R. (2014). The field of transcriptomics is the science of the entire collection of mRNA molecules produced by cells. Vaccines of this type are available for tetanus, diphtheria, and anthrax. Adv. Biosimilar, Biobetter and next generation therapeutic antibodies. Pochanavanich, P., and Suntornsuk, W. (2002). Front. Biochem. Lipkie, T. E., Ferruzzi, M., and Weaver, C. M. (2016). doi: 10.1016/S1369-5274(03)00040-7, Lugtenberg, B., and Kamilova, F. (2009). In recent years, much progress has been achieved in the development and commercialization of bionematicides (Wilson and Jackson, 2013). Mycorrhizal fungi and roots are complementary in foraging within nutrient patches. Technological Microbiology, however, started to draw the attention of the market when products originating from microbial activity began to be required on an industrial scale. Different biotechnological techniques used in the production of currently available vaccine types. Overcoming the challenges in administering biopharmaceuticals: formulation and delivery strategies. FIGURE 1. Int. Nature 499, 431437. On-line and in situ biosensors for monitoring environmental pollution. Appl. A. doi: 10.1016/j.pecs.2008.06.002, Arber, W. (1974). Fungal chitosan production and its characterization. J. Mol. This range of lifestyles within the genus explains why Trichoderma is the source of many strains commercially used in biological control (Howell, 2003). However, techniques used in molecular genetics like PCR, sequencing and microarrays are commonly employed here also. The first study on microbial genetics started by George W. Beadle (1903-1989) and Edward L. Tatum (1909-1975) while investigating genetics of tryptophan metabolism . (2016). Taken together, these mechanisms are known as gene silencing. Microbiol. Biotechnol. doi: 10.1007/s12257-016-0342-y, King, W. J., MacDonald, N. E., Wells, G., Huang, J., Allen, U., Chan, F., et al. The history of the use of biotechnological techniques by humanity is confounded by the history of the establishment of microbiology as a science. Recombinant microorganisms as environmental biosensors: pollutants detection by Escherichia coli bearing fabA::lux fusions. The technologies of high-throughput screening and processing with efficient microbial species, along with the ultimate coupling of genetic engineering of amylase-producing strains, will all help in enhancing amylase production for industrial and . Recently, the interest in microorganisms has focused on compounds with pesticidal activity, mainly herbicidal, insecticidal, and nematicidal. doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2014.12.007. 2, 396409. B. Goldberg, and A. Filloux (Dordrecht: Springer), 289314. The first indication of wine production comes from the presence of tartaric acid in an old jar, also dated to 54005000 BC, at the Neolithic site of Tepe in Mesopotamia (McGovern et al., 1996) and from grape juice residues, found in Dikili Tash in Greece and dated to 5000 BC (Valamoti et al., 2007). Biotechnol. 7, 101109. Chemosphere 44, 281287. Microbiol. Barua, R., Alam, M. J., Salim, M., and Ashrafee, T. S. (2016). 131, 295300. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.04.077, Sussman, M. (1970). 214, 184191. (2001). (2016). Bacterial larvicide, Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis strain AM 65-52 water dispersible granule formulation impacts both dengue vector, Aedes aegypti (L.) population density and disease transmission in Cambodia. Over thousands of years, modernization could be predicted for the use of microorganisms in the production of foods and beverages. These studies not only provide perspectives for producing more effective vaccines against influenza but also suggest innovative approaches for the generation of live attenuated strains for viral pathogens, which remains a challenge (Bournazos and Ravetch, 2017). 15, 57. doi: 10.1186/s12934-016-0455-1. Technol. Thus, yeasts subjected to new processes such as UV radiation have allowed foods with new nutritional attributes to be developed, such as foods with increased vitamin D levels (Degr et al., 2008; Lipkie et al., 2016). Bioresour. doi: 10.1002/elsc.201500116. The polygenic basis of the high acetic acid tolerance present in some strains of S. cerevisiae is still unknown, but its identification may lead to greater efficacy in improving acetic acid tolerance in strains without negatively affecting other industrially important yeast properties (Meijnen et al., 2016). doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.06.017, Liao, J. C., Mi, L., Pontrelli, S., and Luo, S. (2016). An example of a microbial biosensor currently being used for pollutant monitoring purposes consists of immobilized recombinant E. coli cells expressing organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH). This gives the researcher important information about what the gene product might be doing or where it is located in the organism. J. Trop. Thus, only in-depth research in this area could result in more complex and efficient microbial factories. Cell Fact. Chemical, toxicological, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial evaluation of Ganoderma lucidum extracts. (2015). Biol. Biotechnol. Nova 38, 957971. (2016). Science 323, 141144. 2.3 Unique Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells, 3.1 Prokaryote Habitats, Relationships, and Microbiomes, 7.2 Oxygen Requirements for Microbial Growth, 7.3 The Effects of pH on Microbial Growth, 8.1 Whole Genome Methods and Pharmaceutical Applications of Genetic Engineering, 9.2 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants, 10.1 Fundamentals of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 10.3 Mechanisms of Other Antimicrobial Drugs, 10.5 Testing the Effectiveness of Antimicrobials, 10.6 Current Strategies for Antimicrobial Discovery, 11.1 Characteristics of Infectious Disease, 11.3 Virulence Factors of Bacterial and Viral Pathogens, 13.4 Pathogen Recognition and Phagocytosis, 14.1 Overview of Specific Adaptive Immunity, 14.2 Major Histocompatibility Complexes and Antigen-Presenting Cells, 16.1 Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Skin and Eyes, 16.2 Bacterial Infections of the Skin and Eyes, 16.3 Viral Infections of the Skin and Eyes, 16.5 Helminthic Infections of the Skin and Eyes, 17.1 Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Respiratory Tract, 17.2 Bacterial Infections of the Respiratory Tract, 17.3 Viral Infections of the Respiratory Tract, 18.1 Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Urogenital Tract, 18.2 Bacterial Infections of the Urinary System, 18.3 Bacterial Infections of the Reproductive System, 18.4 Viral Infections of the Reproductive System, 18.5 Fungal Infections of the Reproductive System, 18.6 Protozoan Infections of the Urogenital System, 19.1 Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Digestive System, 19.2 Microbial Diseases of the Mouth and Oral Cavity, 19.3 Bacterial Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract, 19.4 Viral Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract, 19.5 Protozoan Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract, 19.6 Helminthic Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract, 20.1 Anatomy of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems, 20.2 Bacterial Infections of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems, 20.3 Viral Infections of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems, 20.4 Parasitic Infections of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems, 21.2 Bacterial Diseases of the Nervous System, 21.3 Acellular Diseases of the Nervous System, 8.1 Whole Genome Methods and Pharmaceutical Applications of Genetic Engineering. 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